established above another, and all men are equally citizens.

  17. For a character of aristocracy, the reader is referred to Rights
of Man, Part I., starting at line number 1457.

  18. The whole amount of the assessed taxes of France, for the
present year, is three hundred millions of francs, which is twelve
millions and a half sterling; and the incidental taxes are estimated
at three millions, making in the whole fifteen millions and a half;
which among twenty-four millions of people, is not quite thirteen
shillings per head. France has lessened her taxes since the
revolution, nearly nine millions sterling annually. Before the
revolution, the city of Paris paid a duty of upwards of thirty per
cent. on all articles brought into the city. This tax was collected at
the city gates. It was taken off on the first of last May, and the
gates taken down.

  19. What was called the livre rouge, or the red book, in France, was
not exactly similar to the Court Calendar in England; but it
sufficiently showed how a great part of the taxes was lavished.

  20. In England the improvements in agriculture, useful arts,
manufactures, and commerce, have been made in opposition to the genius
of its government, which is that of following precedents. It is from
the enterprise and industry of the individuals, and their numerous
associations, in which, tritely speaking, government is neither pillow
nor bolster, that these improvements have proceeded. No man thought
about government, or who was in, or who was out, when he was
planning or executing those things; and all he had to hope, with
respect to government, was, that it would let him alone. Three or four
very silly ministerial newspapers are continually offending against
the spirit of national improvement, by ascribing it to a minister.
They may with as much truth ascribe this book to a minister.

  21. With respect to the two houses, of which the English
parliament is composed, they appear to be effectually influenced
into one, and, as a legislature, to have no temper of its own. The
minister, whoever he at any time may be, touches it as with an opium
wand, and it sleeps obedience.

  But if we look at the distinct abilities of the two houses, the
difference will appear so great, as to show the inconsistency of
placing power where there can be no certainty of the judgment to use
it. Wretched as the state of representation is in England, it is
manhood compared with what is called the house of Lords; and so little
is this nick-named house regarded, that the people scarcely enquire at
any time what it is doing. It appears also to be most under influence,
and the furthest removed from the general interest of the nation. In
the debate on engaging in the Russian and Turkish war, the majority in
the house of peers in favor of it was upwards of ninety, when in the
other house, which was more than double its numbers, the majority
was sixty-three.

  The proceedings on Mr. Fox's bill, respecting the rights of
juries, merits also to be noticed. The persons called the peers were
not the objects of that bill. They are already in possession of more
privileges than that bill gave to others. They are their own jury, and
if any one of that house were prosecuted for a libel, he would not
suffer, even upon conviction, for the first offense. Such inequality
in laws ought not to exist in any country. The French constitution
says, that the law is the same to every individual, whether to Protect
or to punish. All are equal in its sight.

  22. As to the state of representation in England, it is too absurd
to be reasoned upon. Almost all the represented parts are decreasing
in population, and the unrepresented parts are increasing. A general
convention of the nation is necessary to take the whole form of
government into consideration.

  23. It is related that in the canton of Berne, in Switzerland, it
has been customary, from time immemorial, to keep a bear at the public
expense, and the people had been taught to believe that if they had
not a bear they should all be undone. It happened some years ago
that the bear, then in being, was taken sick, and died too suddenly to
have his place immediately supplied with another. During this
interregnum the people discovered that the corn grew, and the
vintage flourished, and the sun and moon continued to rise and set,
and everything went on the same as before, and taking courage from
these circumstances, they resolved not to keep any more bears; for,
said they, "a bear is a very voracious expensive animal, and we were
obliged to pull out his claws, lest he should hurt the citizens."
The story of the bear of Berne was related in some of the French
newspapers, at the time of the flight of Louis XVI., and the
application of it to monarchy could not be mistaken in France; but
it seems that the aristocracy of Berne applied it to themselves, and
have since prohibited the reading of French newspapers.

  24. It is scarcely possible to touch on any subject, that will not
suggest an allusion to some corruption in governments. The simile of
"fortifications," unfortunately involves with it a circumstance, which
is directly in point with the matter above alluded to.

  Among the numerous instances of abuse which have been acted or
protected by governments, ancient or modern, there is not a greater
than that of quartering a man and his heirs upon the public, to be
maintained at its expense.

  Humanity dictates a provision for the poor; but by what right, moral
or political, does any government assume to say, that the person
called the Duke of Richmond, shall be maintained by the public? Yet,