forwards. But man bends his arms and his legs towards the same
point, and therefore in opposite ways: that is to say, he bends his
arms backwards, with just a slight inclination inwards, and his legs
frontwards. No animal bends both its fore-limbs and hind-limbs
backwards; but in the case of all animals the flexion of the shoulders
is in the opposite direction to that of the elbows or the joints of
the forelegs, and the flexure in the hips to that of the knees of
the hind-legs: so that since man differs from other animals in
flexion, those animals that possess such parts as these move them
contrariwise to man.

    Birds have the flexions of their limbs like those of the
quadrupeds; for, although bipeds, they bend their legs backwards,
and instead of arms or front legs have wings which bend frontwards.

    The seal is a kind of imperfect or crippled quadruped; for just
behind the shoulder-blade its front feet are placed, resembling hands,
like the front paws of the bear; for they are furnished with five
toes, and each of the toes has three flexions and a nail of
inconsiderable size. The hind feet are also furnished with five
toes; in their flexions and nails they resemble the front feet, and in
shape they resemble a fish's tail.

    The movements of animals, quadruped and multiped, are crosswise,
or in diagonals, and their equilibrium in standing posture is
maintained crosswise; and it is always the limb on the right-hand side
that is the first to move. The lion, however, and the two species of
camels, both the Bactrian and the Arabian, progress by an amble; and
the action so called is when the animal never overpasses the right
with the left, but always follows close upon it.

    Whatever parts men have in front, these parts quadrupeds have
below, in or on the belly; and whatever parts men have behind, these
parts quadrupeds have above on their backs. Most quadrupeds have a
tail; for even the seal has a tiny one resembling that of the stag.
Regarding the tails of the pithecoids we must give their distinctive
properties by and by animal

    All viviparous quadrupeds are hair-coated, whereas man has only a
few short hairs excepting on the head, but, so far as the head is
concerned, he is hairier than any other animal. Further, of
hair-coated animals, the back is hairier than the belly, which
latter is either comparatively void of hair or smooth and void of hair
altogether. With man the reverse is the case.

    Man also has upper and lower eyelashes, and hair under the
armpits and on the pubes. No other animal has hair in either of
these localities, or has an under eyelash; though in the case of
some animals a few straggling hairs grow under the eyelid.

    Of hair-coated quadrupeds some are hairy all over the body, as
the pig, the bear, and the dog; others are especially hairy on the
neck and all round about it, as is the case with animals that have a
shaggy mane, such as the lion; others again are especially hairy on
the upper surface of the neck from the head as far as the withers,
namely, such as have a crested mane, as in the case with the horse,
the mule, and, among the undomesticated horned animals, the bison.

    The so-called hippelaphus also has a mane on its withers, and the
animal called pardion, in either case a thin mane extending from the
head to the withers; the hippelaphus has, exceptionally, a beard by
the larynx. Both these animals have horns and are cloven-footed; the
female, however, of the hippelaphus has no horns. This latter animal
resembles the stag in size; it is found in the territory of the
Arachotae, where the wild cattle also are found. Wild cattle differ
from their domesticated congeners just as the wild boar differs from
the domesticated one. That is to say they are black, strong looking,
with a hook-nosed muzzle, and with horns lying more over the back. The
horns of the hippelaphus resemble those of the gazelle.

    The elephant, by the way, is the least hairy of all quadrupeds.
With animals, as a general rule, the tail corresponds with the body as
regards thickness or thinness of hair-coating; that is, with animals
that have long tails, for some creatures have tails of altogether
insignificant size.

    Camels have an exceptional organ wherein they differ from all
other animals, and that is the so-called 'hump' on their back. The
Bactrian camel differs from the Arabian; for the former has two
humps and the latter only one, though it has, by the way, a kind of
a hump below like the one above, on which, when it kneels, the
weight of the whole body rests. The camel has four teats like the cow,
a tail like that of an ass, and the privy parts of the male are
directed backwards. It has one knee in each leg, and the flexures of
the limb are not manifold, as some say, although they appear to be
so from the constricted shape of the region of the belly. It has a
huckle-bone like that of kine, but meagre and small in proportion to
its bulk. It is cloven-footed, and has not got teeth in both jaws; and
it is cloven footed in the following way: at the back there is a
slight cleft extending as far up as the second joint of the toes;
and in front there are small hooves on the tip of the first joint of
the toes; and a sort of web passes across the cleft, as in geese.
The foot is fleshy underneath, like that of the bear; so that, when
the animal goes to war, they protect its feet, when they get sore,
with sandals.

    The legs of all quadrupeds are bony, sinewy, and fleshless; and
in point of fact such is the case with all animals that are
furnished with feet, with the exception of man. They are also
unfurnished with buttocks; and this last point is plain in an especial