intonation. The additions to the number of 'episodes' or acts, and the
other accessories of which tradition tells, must be taken as already
described; for to discuss them in detail would, doubtless, be a
large undertaking.
POETICS|5

  V

  Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower
type- not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous
being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect
or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious
example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply
pain.

  The successive changes through which Tragedy passed, and the authors
of these changes, are well known, whereas Comedy has had no history,
because it was not at first treated seriously. It was late before
the Archon granted a comic chorus to a poet; the performers were
till then voluntary. Comedy had already taken definite shape when
comic poets, distinctively so called, are heard of. Who furnished it
with masks, or prologues, or increased the number of actors- these and
other similar details remain unknown. As for the plot, it came
originally from Sicily; but of Athenian writers Crates was the first
who abandoning the 'iambic' or lampooning form, generalized his themes
and plots.

  Epic poetry agrees with Tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in
verse of characters of a higher type. They differ in that Epic
poetry admits but one kind of meter and is narrative in form. They
differ, again, in their length: for Tragedy endeavors, as far as
possible, to confine itself to a single revolution of the sun, or
but slightly to exceed this limit, whereas the Epic action has no
limits of time. This, then, is a second point of difference; though at
first the same freedom was admitted in Tragedy as in Epic poetry.

  Of their constituent parts some are common to both, some peculiar to
Tragedy: whoever, therefore knows what is good or bad Tragedy, knows
also about Epic poetry. All the elements of an Epic poem are found
in Tragedy, but the elements of a Tragedy are not all found in the
Epic poem.
POETICS|6

  VI

  Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and of Comedy, we
will speak hereafter. Let us now discuss Tragedy, resuming its
formal definition, as resulting from what has been already said.

  Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious,
complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with
each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in
separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative;
through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these
emotions. By 'language embellished,' I mean language into which
rhythm, 'harmony' and song enter. By 'the several kinds in separate
parts,' I mean, that some parts are rendered through the medium of
verse alone, others again with the aid of song.

  Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it necessarily
follows in the first place, that Spectacular equipment will be a
part of Tragedy. Next, Song and Diction, for these are the media of
imitation. By 'Diction' I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the
words: as for 'Song,' it is a term whose sense every one understands.

  Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an action
implies personal agents, who necessarily possess certain distinctive
qualities both of character and thought; for it is by these that we
qualify actions themselves, and these- thought and character- are
the two natural causes from which actions spring, and on actions again
all success or failure depends. Hence, the Plot is the imitation of
the action- for by plot I here mean the arrangement of the
incidents. By Character I mean that in virtue of which we ascribe
certain qualities to the agents. Thought is required wherever a
statement is proved, or, it may be, a general truth enunciated.
Every Tragedy, therefore, must have six parts, which parts determine
its quality- namely, Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Spectacle,
Song. Two of the parts constitute the medium of imitation, one the
manner, and three the objects of imitation. And these complete the
fist. These elements have been employed, we may say, by the poets to a
man; in fact, every play contains Spectacular elements as well as
Character, Plot, Diction, Song, and Thought.

  But most important of all is the structure of the incidents. For
Tragedy is an imitation, not of men, but of an action and of life, and
life consists in action, and its end is a mode of action, not a
quality. Now character determines men's qualities, but it is by
their actions that they are happy or the reverse. Dramatic action,
therefore, is not with a view to the representation of character:
character comes in as subsidiary to the actions. Hence the incidents
and the plot are the end of a tragedy; and the end is the chief
thing of all. Again, without action there cannot be a tragedy; there
may be without character. The tragedies of most of our modern poets
fail in the rendering of character; and of poets in general this is
often true. It is the same in painting; and here lies the difference
between Zeuxis and Polygnotus. Polygnotus delineates character well;
the style of Zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality. Again, if you string
together a set of speeches expressive of character, and well
finished in point of diction and thought, you will not produce the
essential tragic effect nearly so well as with a play which, however