350 BC

                                PRIOR ANALYTICS

                                  by Aristotle

                         translated by A. J. Jenkinson

                              Book I

                                 1

  WE must first state the subject of our inquiry and the faculty to
which it belongs: its subject is demonstration and the faculty that
carries it out demonstrative science. We must next define a premiss, a
term, and a syllogism, and the nature of a perfect and of an imperfect
syllogism; and after that, the inclusion or noninclusion of one term
in another as in a whole, and what we mean by predicating one term
of all, or none, of another.

  A premiss then is a sentence affirming or denying one thing of
another. This is either universal or particular or indefinite. By
universal I mean the statement that something belongs to all or none
of something else; by particular that it belongs to some or not to
some or not to all; by indefinite that it does or does not belong,
without any mark to show whether it is universal or particular, e.g.
'contraries are subjects of the same science', or 'pleasure is not
good'. The demonstrative premiss differs from the dialectical, because
the demonstrative premiss is the assertion of one of two contradictory
statements (the demonstrator does not ask for his premiss, but lays it
down), whereas the dialectical premiss depends on the adversary's
choice between two contradictories. But this will make no difference
to the production of a syllogism in either case; for both the
demonstrator and the dialectician argue syllogistically after
stating that something does or does not belong to something else.
Therefore a syllogistic premiss without qualification will be an
affirmation or denial of something concerning something else in the
way we have described; it will be demonstrative, if it is true and
obtained through the first principles of its science; while a
dialectical premiss is the giving of a choice between two
contradictories, when a man is proceeding by question, but when he
is syllogizing it is the assertion of that which is apparent and
generally admitted, as has been said in the Topics. The nature then of
a premiss and the difference between syllogistic, demonstrative, and
dialectical premisses, may be taken as sufficiently defined by us in
relation to our present need, but will be stated accurately in the
sequel.

  I call that a term into which the premiss is resolved, i.e. both the
predicate and that of which it is predicated, 'being' being added
and 'not being' removed, or vice versa.

  A syllogism is discourse in which, certain things being stated,
something other than what is stated follows of necessity from their
being so. I mean by the last phrase that they produce the consequence,
and by this, that no further term is required from without in order to
make the consequence necessary.

  I call that a perfect syllogism which needs nothing other than
what has been stated to make plain what necessarily follows; a
syllogism is imperfect, if it needs either one or more propositions,
which are indeed the necessary consequences of the terms set down, but
have not been expressly stated as premisses.

  That one term should be included in another as in a whole is the
same as for the other to be predicated of all of the first. And we say
that one term is predicated of all of another, whenever no instance of
the subject can be found of which the other term cannot be asserted:
'to be predicated of none' must be understood in the same way.

                                 2

  Every premiss states that something either is or must be or may be
the attribute of something else; of premisses of these three kinds
some are affirmative, others negative, in respect of each of the three
modes of attribution; again some affirmative and negative premisses
are universal, others particular, others indefinite. It is necessary
then that in universal attribution the terms of the negative premiss
should be convertible, e.g. if no pleasure is good, then no good
will be pleasure; the terms of the affirmative must be convertible,
not however, universally, but in part, e.g. if every pleasure,is good,
some good must be pleasure; the particular affirmative must convert in
part (for if some pleasure is good, then some good will be
pleasure); but the particular negative need not convert, for if some
animal is not man, it does not follow that some man is not animal.

  First then take a universal negative with the terms A and B. If no B
is A, neither can any A be B. For if some A (say C) were B, it would
not be true that no B is A; for C is a B. But if every B is A then
some A is B. For if no A were B, then no B could be A. But we
assumed that every B is A. Similarly too, if the premiss is
particular. For if some B is A, then some of the As must be B. For
if none were, then no B would be A. But if some B is not A, there is
no necessity that some of the As should not be B; e.g. let B stand for
animal and A for man. Not every animal is a man; but every man is an
animal.

                                 3

  The same manner of conversion will hold good also in respect of