however, have been had the meaning of 'clear' in each case been
synonymous.

  Often in the actual definitions as well ambiguity creeps in
unawares, and for this reason the definitions also should be examined.
If (e.g.) any one describes what betokens and what produces health
as 'related commensurably to health', we must not desist but go on
to examine in what sense he has used the term 'commensurably' in
each case, e.g. if in the latter case it means that 'it is of the
right amount to produce health', whereas in the for it means that
'it is such as to betoken what kind of state prevails'.

  Moreover, see if the terms cannot be compared as 'more or less' or
as 'in like manner', as is the case (e.g.) with a 'clear' (lit. white)
sound and a 'clear' garment, and a 'sharp' flavour and a 'sharp' note.
For neither are these things said to be clear or sharp 'in a like
degree', nor yet is the one said to be clearer or sharper than the
other. 'Clear', then, and 'sharp' are ambiguous. For synonyms are
always comparable; for they will always be used either in like manner,
or else in a greater degree in one case.

  Now since of genera that are different without being subaltern the
differentiae also are different in kind, e.g. those of 'animal' and
'knowledge' (for the differentiae of these are different), look and
see if the meanings comprised under the same term are differentiae
of genera that are different without being subaltern, as e.g.
'sharp' is of a 'note' and a 'solid'. For being 'sharp' differentiates
note from note, and likewise also one solid from another. 'Sharp',
then, is an ambiguous term: for it forms differentiae of genera that
are different without being subaltern.

  Again, see if the actual meanings included under the same term
themselves have different differentiae, e.g. 'colour' in bodies and
'colour' in tunes: for the differentiae of 'colour' in bodies are
'sight-piercing' and 'sight compressing', whereas 'colour' in melodies
has not the same differentiae. Colour, then, is an ambiguous term; for
things that are the same have the same differentiae.

  Moreover, since the species is never the differentia of anything,
look and see if one of the meanings included under the same term be
a species and another a differentia, as (e.g.) clear' (lit. white)
as applied to a body is a species of colour, whereas in the case of
a note it is a differentia; for one note is differentiated from
another by being 'clear'.

                                16

  The presence, then, of a number of meanings in a term may be
investigated by these and like means. The differences which things
present to each other should be examined within the same genera,
e.g. 'Wherein does justice differ from courage, and wisdom from
temperance?'-for all these belong to the same genus; and also from one
genus to another, provided they be not very much too far apart, e.g.
'Wherein does sensation differ from knowledge?: for in the case of
genera that are very far apart, the differences are entirely obvious.

                                17

  Likeness should be studied, first, in the case of things belonging
to different genera, the formulae being 'A:B = C:D' (e.g. as knowledge
stands to the object of knowledge, so is sensation related to the
object of sensation), and 'As A is in B, so is C in D' (e.g. as
sight is in the eye, so is reason in the soul, and as is a calm in the
sea, so is windlessness in the air). Practice is more especially
needed in regard to terms that are far apart; for in the case of the
rest, we shall be more easily able to see in one glance the points
of likeness. We should also look at things which belong to the same
genus, to see if any identical attribute belongs to them all, e.g.
to a man and a horse and a dog; for in so far as they have any
identical attribute, in so far they are alike.

                                18

  It is useful to have examined the number of meanings of a term
both for clearness' sake (for a man is more likely to know what it
is he asserts, if it bas been made clear to him how many meanings it
may have), and also with a view to ensuring that our reasonings
shall be in accordance with the actual facts and not addressed
merely to the term used. For as long as it is not clear in how many
senses a term is used, it is possible that the answerer and the
questioner are not directing their minds upon the same thing:
whereas when once it has been made clear how many meanings there
are, and also upon which of them the former directs his mind when he
makes his assertion, the questioner would then look ridiculous if he
failed to address his argument to this. It helps us also both to avoid
being misled and to mislead by false reasoning: for if we know the
number of meanings of a term, we shall certainly never be misled by
false reasoning, but shall know if the questioner fails to address his
argument to the same point; and when we ourselves put the questions we
shall be able to mislead him, if our answerer happens not to know
the number of meanings of our terms. This, however, is not possible in
all cases, but only when of the many senses some are true and others
are false. This manner of argument, however, does not belong
properly to dialectic; dialecticians should therefore by all means
beware of this kind of verbal discussion, unless any one is absolutely
unable to discuss the subject before him in any other way.

  The discovery of the differences of things helps us both in
reasonings about sameness and difference, and also in recognizing what
any particular thing is. That it helps us in reasoning about